new internationalist
issue 231 - May 1992
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The
Vocabulary of Control
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The NI looks
at the language and levers of power in Japan.
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 The first
is literally 'examination hell'. The second refers to the kind of bullying
that goes on in the Japanese school system. From as early as kindergarten
Japanese students are under incredible pressure to succeed. They must
pass tests and examinations to get into the best secondary schools and
universities. Deviant behaviour - or just difference - is punished informally
by bullying by cliques of fellow students, or by the exercise of sometimes
quite brutal corporal punishment by school authorities. Students are subjected
to a tyranny of dozens of petty rules and regulations which they are expected
to obey both in and after school hours. The school system works to socialize
the individual to the discipline of the group. |
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Jinmyaku
are the networks of unofficial relationships between civil servants, politicians
and corporate executives. In Japanese public and business life these networks
are forged with favours, money, marriage ties, exchanges of crucial information,
and political support. They are the key to a successful career. What might
raise eyebrows elsewhere is considered normal practice in Japan, where
notions of conflict of interest or arms-length relationships have little
currency. Only occasionally are the press and legal authorities forced
to pay attention. Sometimes a politician falls out of favour, or there
are major scandals that can't be ignored, like the Lockheed bribery scandal
that landed former Prime Minister Tanaka behind bars. |
The
former refers to peoples' real intentions - the truth of the heart. The
latter refers to the pretence, the formal explanation or officially-given
reasons that comprise the placid surface of Japanese life - the truth
of the tongue. A great deal of effort goes into maintaining these 'official'
explanations. Those who would expose the honne of greed or expedience
behind the tatemae of fine words - the trade unionist, the environmental
activist, the crusading journalist - are subjected to great cultural pressure
for creating unnecessary conflict. A good example of maintaining tatemae
(and hiding honne) is Dentsu - the world's largest advertising
agency. Dentsu, through its stranglehold on the market in lucrative advertising,
actively ensures that news that reflects badly on its clients is either
downplayed or not covered at all by a compliant media. |
The
Japanese for emperor and all that is implied by the emperor system. More
than a mere constitutional monarch, the Emperor is held to have divine
qualities. The somewhat vague values that he is held to represent are
the very essence of Japaneseness. Yet the Emperor has little real power.
Official acts carried out by invoking the imperial mandate are often the
cloak for the actions of conservative power-holders. Anyone who criticizes
the Emperor or the emperor system can get into very hot water. The mayor
of Nagasaki was recently the victim of a rightist assassination attempt
for publicly stating that the emperor was partially responsible for atrocities
committed by the Japanese during World War Two. |
Company
spirit. The plethora of company songs, emblems reminiscent of family crests,
group callisthenics, sacred stories of the founders, and endless meetings
to encourage co-operation, self-criticism and subordination of the individual
to the whole that mark Japanese corporate culture are all well enough
known in the West. Less well known are the rigorous, sometimes military-style
training courses that are used to integrate new recruits into the demanding
work-life of a 'salaryman'. Both free time and family life are sacrificed
to shafu and a new word karoshi has been invented to describe
death from overwork by 'salarymen' imbued with shafu. |
This is the theory of Japaneseness. The widely held view amongst the mandarins of business and government, as well as some scholars, holds that the Japanese culture is unique and subtle - essentially unknowable by outsiders. According to this theory certain types of behaviour - criticism of the Emperor, disrespect for national symbols, being too outspoken or controversial - are un- Japanese. Certain views - particularly radical ones - fall into a similar category. Nihonjinron has its roots in pre-war fascist philosophy when it was used as a tool to stifle dissent. |
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